Article 21: Right to Life and Personal Liberty

No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law.

Evolution and Interpretation

Article 21 has undergone remarkable expansion through judicial interpretation. Originally meant to protect only life and liberty, it now encompasses a wide range of rights essential for dignified living.

Rights Derived from Article 21

The Supreme Court has read numerous rights into Article 21, including:

• Right to Privacy: Declared a fundamental right in Justice K.S. Puttaswamy case (2017)
• Right to Food: Essential for survival and dignified life
• Right to Shelter: Right to live with human dignity includes adequate shelter
• Right to Clean Environment: Pollution-free water and air
• Right to Health and Medical Care: Access to healthcare facilities
• Right to Education: Later made explicit under Article 21A
• Right to Speedy Trial: Delay in trial violates Article 21
• Right to Legal Aid: Free legal assistance to poor and needy
• Right against Solitary Confinement: Protection of dignity
• Right to Livelihood: Right to earn a living
• Right to Reputation: Essential component of dignity
• Right to Sleep: Essential for health and wellbeing

Procedure Established by Law

The phrase "procedure established by law" means:

• Life and liberty can be deprived only by law made by a competent legislature
• The procedure must be fair, just, and reasonable (Post-Maneka Gandhi judgment)
• Cannot be arbitrary, fanciful, or oppressive

Article 21 vs Article 20 and 22

While Article 21 is the general provision, Articles 20 and 22 provide specific protections:

• Article 20: Protection against ex-post facto laws, double jeopardy, self-incrimination
• Article 22: Protection against arrest and detention

Landmark Judgments

• Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978): Revolutionary expansion - procedure must be fair and reasonable
• Francis Coralie Mullin v. Administrator (1981): Right to life includes right to live with dignity
• Olga Tellis v. Bombay Municipal Corporation (1985): Right to livelihood is part of Article 21
• M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (Multiple cases): Right to clean environment
• Justice K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India (2017): Right to privacy is intrinsic to Article 21
• Common Cause v. Union of India (2018): Right to die with dignity (passive euthanasia)

Contemporary Applications

• COVID-19 and right to health
• Data protection and privacy rights
• Environmental protection and climate change
• Police brutality and custodial deaths
• Mental health and right to dignity

Article 21 and Emergency

Article 21 cannot be suspended even during a National Emergency (44th Amendment, 1978). This makes it one of the most protected rights in the Constitution.